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Soekarno-Hatta International Airport (CGK) is the main airport serving the Greater Jakarta area, while Halim Perdanakusuma Airport (HLP) accommodates private and low-cost domestic flights. Despite draining a huge area, we estimate a modest ice loss for Helheim Glacier of just 31 ± 21 Gt during 1900-2012. Our Fig. 4 and Table 1 suggest that changes in ice dynamics at Jakobshavn Isbræ and Kangerlussuaq Glacier are the major contributor to total ice loss, whereas ice loss at Helheim Glacier is equally distributed between ice dynamics and SMB. The blue curves in Fig. 4 denote SMB induced ice mass changes. The blue curve denotes SMB. A previous estimate Valentina Of 4 ice mass loss over the 20th century based on aerial imagery7 did not consider ice loss between the 1875 and the 2002 ice margin (this corresponds to the area between the dashed yellow curve “1875-front position” and the solid blue curve “2002-front position” in Fig. 2a) Although the previous study7 provides a single century-scale ice loss estimate, here we estimate multi-year to decadal-scale ice losses, which are essential to understand how the ice dynamics of major drainage basins respond to variability in the atmosphere and ocean.

Frontal positions from 1875 to 2018 for Jakobshavn Isbræ. Although Jakobshavn Isbræ and Kangerlussuaq Glacier have retreated tens of kilometres since 1900 (Fig. 2a, b), Helheim Glacier has retreated and re-advanced, resulting in a net retreat in 2012 of only five kilometres with respect to 1900 (Fig. 2c). The Little Ice Age maximum extent of Helheim Glacier is situated in a place where the bed does not deepen inland. Interestingly, rates of mass loss for Jakobshavn Isbræ in the early 1900s are comparable to present-day rates (Fig. 4a) and for Kangerlussuaq Glacier they were larger than present-day from 1880 to 1930. Both glaciers possess a retrograde bed slope at the present frontal position that persists for tens of kilometres inland (Fig. 1d, e). Ice loss rates should increase since the bed slope steepens inland (Fig. 1d, e). Recent studies analysed ice front change of marine-terminating outlet glaciers in Greenland over the last 2-3 decades to show that higher retreat rates are associated with glaciers retreating into widening fjords or retrograde bedrock slope22,23.

A number of studies have used aerial stereo-photogrammetric imagery and reports from Greenland expeditions during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to map ice front positions or ice surface lowering over the past century at Jakobshavn Isbræ6,7,32, Kangerlussuaq Glacier21,32,33 and Helheim Glacier,21,32,33. Although several studies have estimated the mass loss of Jakobshavn Isbræ, Kangerlussuaq Glacier, tiktok.com and Helheim Glacier during the satellite-era from the 1970s onwards at various spatial scales15,16,24,25,26, estimates of decadal-scale temporal change during the 19th and 20th centuries remain poorly constrained and are limited to historical and geological records27,28,29,30. This limits our ability to assess the spatial and temporal extent of dynamic changes that followed the last short-lived glacier advance during the Little Ice Age. 13 Gt/yr over a century, with the dominant signal due to a combination of termination of the Little Ice Age and warming in the 1930s. Since the early 2000s, the rate of loss has been closer to 20-30 Gt/yr, consistent with previous estimates15,16.